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The generalized tectonic setting of Zealandia from at least the Permian to the Cretaceous is thought to have been an Andean-style continental magmatic arc and mountain range, passing close to the South Pole (Fig. (2015) estimate a source depth of 50 km by modeling broadband recordings in India, and Aderhold and Abercrombie (2016) estimate a centroid depth of 53 km from teleseismic P-wave modeling. Tectonic setting of New Zealand: astride a plate boundary which includes the Alpine Fault New Zealand lies at the edge of both the Australian and Pacific tectonic plates. In the same region, but using a different approach, Hayward et al. However, the transition in axial morphology appears to coincide with variations in the geochemistry of axial lavas (Sempere and Klein, 1995). The NEIC reports a hypocentral depth of 47 km and a W-phase centroid depth of 60.5 km. It has probably been the site of repetitive failures, and its sediment may have been reworked into the subduction trough. From the Permian, and certainly by the Late Jurassic, more complete and mutually related components of an active continental margin can be identified and related to each other. 9.3. These displacements have been dated by correlating the ages of fault-disrupted glacial moraines and by measuring the 14C age of organic materials trapped in fault movement debris (Sutherland, Berryman, & Norris, 2006) and by dating displacement (by shaking) of lake sediments (Howarth, Fitzsimons, Norris, Langridge, & Vandergoes, 2016). Before the formation of the plates, the region used to be a subduction zone where the Pacific plate was subducting under the Australian plate. From Litchfield, N. J., Van Dissen, R., Sutherland, R., & et al. Tropical mountains above 3400 m on islands. Vanuatu is an island arc formed at the boundary between the Australian and Pacific plates. It is well known that the isotope systematic of the Indian Ocean MORB is different from that of Atlantic and Pacific MORB (Table 2.3A). Based on Aderhold, K., Abercrombie, R. E., 2016. (2015) found evidence for 10 large earthquakes in the last 7500 years. The SEIR between these two faults is represented by an axial valley of moderate depth and width (600 m, 10 km). 9.3). The idea of plate tectonics was formulated in the 1960s (Andel). There are 3 boundaries where volcanic and seismic events, but not limited to, occur. The Australian Plate is moving in a North to Northeastern direction at a speed of approximately 7 cm /year (although the continent of Australia only shifts by approximately 5.6 cm/year). The site at Wellington (New Zealand) is moving with a velocity intermediate between the Australian and Pacific plates, consistent with its location in the plate boundary zone. From Berryman, K., Ota, Y., Miyauchi, T., Hull, A., Clark, K., Ishibashi, K., et al. Thousands of smaller aftershocks occurred several months afterwards (Te Ara Encyclopedia of New Zealand, n.d.). This older eastern chain is variously referred to as the “inactive Tongatapu arc” (Parson et al., 1990), the “Tonga Platform” (Clift and Dixon, 1994), and a frontal arc (Nunn, 1994). Figure 18.3 (from Clift and Dixon, 1994) illustrates the main events, including the splitting of an older Tonga arc by the formation of the Lau Basin; the transport of the western split, the Lau Ridge, away from the subduction zone; and the formation of the new Tofua Arc and uplift of the Tonga Platform. Velocities for sites on the Pacific plate are slightly faster than NNR-A, and future data will show whether this disagreement is significant.Figure 1 .1]. Fifty peaks exceed 3750 m and the area above 3600 m is 3350 km2 (Hope, 2014) (Fig. As a result of the stresses that accumulate from ongoing movement of the Pacific and Australian Plates (Figs 2.6 and 2.12), New Zealand experiences many earthquakes when built-up stress is released (Hull, 1998). The movement, approximately 240 x 50 km zone of significant volcanic and geothermal activity (see Figure 1). R.A. McBride, ... P. Wang, in Treatise on Geomorphology, 2013. The Pacific Plate is estimated to be 103,300,000 square kilometers in size. At least four of the earthquakes were large and considered likely to have been generated by large subduction-interface displacements. Like Solomon Islands, it has experienced a reversal in subduction polarity over geological time. Ground shaking by earthquake waves can cause liquefaction of the soil and subsoil, a process during which sands and silts can become liquefied and flow or cause objects above them to sink. When crust is formed at a mid-ocean ridge, it is hot and buoyant meaning it has a low density. The absence of any large variation in mantle temperature (25–50°C) is manifested by near-uniform crustal thickness below the SEIR and this may be explained by the presence of a steady-state axial magma chamber and a nearly constant spreading rate (Shah and Sempere, 1998). Scientists used this theory to explain what is happening on Earth’s surface. 2. This was the time at which Zealandia's crust and lithosphere underwent substantial thinning and which ultimately led to its 95% submergence, an event it shared with West Antarctica (Fig. Hence the SEIR appears to be an ideal site to study the effects of varying mantle temperatures on crustal accretion, the thermomechanical structure, and the magmatic interaction between MORB and mantle plumes (Amsterdam/St. In the south, a small part of the Australian Plate subducts under the Pacific Plate In the north, the Pacific Plate subducts under the Australian Plate. Ticks show the downthrown side of normal faults. http://www.theaudiopedia.com What is PACIFIC PLATE? By far the most active period was 1929 to 1934, with five shallow earthquakes reaching magnitude 7 or more. The inset shows Wellington's motion relative to the Australian plate. At the southern end of the South Island, the Australian Plate dives down (subducts) below the Pacific Plate whilst in the North Island the opposite situation occurs with the Pacific Plate being pushed under by the Australian Plate. The Australian plate is one of the most imposing and older ones on Earth and is in contact with 17 other plates and micro-plates. From such evidence, the average interval between Alpine Fault displacements in southern and central Westland has been found to be in the order of 150–300 years, and the last one occurred in 1717 AD, so another is due. Separately, the Eocene Emerald Basin opened to the south. Developing The Efficient Market Hypothesis Introduced By Fama Essay, Motivation Of Self Directed Learning Essay. Fig. Sea floor spreading is another theory that supports the, There were very few causalities because most people were home at the time of the earthquake. The NW-SE principle stress direction in the Indian plate arising from the configuration of the India-Eurasia continental collision combines with the oblique orientation of underthrusting and NE-SW slab pull in the Sunda trench to produce intraplate stresses favoring strike-slip faulting that happens to align generally with fossil fracture zones and the Ninetyeast Ridge. Forming a mostly convergent boundary, it subducts under the other, just north of New Zealand, forming underwater trenches. The oceanic intraplate events clearly involve rupture in the mantle as well as the crust, and apparently the high strength of oceanic mantle plays a major role in producing the high stress-drop fractures. Holocene paleoseismic history of upper-plate faults in the southern Hikurangi subduction margin, New Zealand, deduced from marine terrace records. In that perspective, the occurrence of large strike-slip events offset from fracture zones or rupturing lithosphere in orthogonal directions is most likely a manifestation of the plate failure being primarily controlled by the stress state and boundary conditions on the plate rather than by any internal fabric. At about 58,900,000 km 2, the Indo-Australia plate is the sixth largest plate tectonic boundary. The Caroline Plate is a minor tectonic plate that straddles the Equator in the eastern hemisphere located north of New Guinea. Significant peaks on other islands include the schist mountain Yushan (3952 m) in central Taiwan, the granitic Mount Kinabalu (4101 m) on Borneo and several peaks in Sumatra, Java, Lombok, and Sulawesi which exceed 3400 m. (Fig. 9.5). The Pacific Plate contains an interior hot spot forming the Hawaiian Islands. 9.4). Sudden changes in foraminiferal microfossils and sediments along the edge of a former tidal inlet permitted identification of dates of shoreline movement and amounts of displacement of the saltwater/freshwater interface. Fig. Result from the Pacific Plate subducting under the Australian Plate 18-1) and is part of an arc system (the Tonga Ridge, Scholl and Vallier, 1985) that has formed in response to subduction of the Pacific Plate over a period of at least 45 m.y. The D’Entrecasteaux ridge first came in contact with the Vanuatu arc, south of Malakula, and has drifted northwards with time, presently situated west of Espiritu Santo (Hochstein et al., 1971). 5. Late Cenozoic tectonic history of the Tonga Arc according to results of ODP Leg 135. Reactivation of Oceanic Fracture Zones in Large Intraplate Earthquakes? Active fault zones in the northern Taupo Rift and Bay of Plenty. Indeed, New Guinea was separated physically from Australia only some 8,000 years ago by the shallow flooding of the Torres Strait. In the vicinity of Pukemuri Stream, about 20 km northeast of Cape Palliser, a sequence of seven marine terraces is preserved, each stepped about 2 m apart, from 2.2 m above sea level to 15.4 m (Berryman et al., 2011). The physical tectonic architecture of Vanuatu can be viewed as forming four geotectonic zones (Warden and Mitchell, 1971; Fig. However, final tectonic separation from Australia took place later, with oceanic crust in the northern Tasman Basin and Cato Trough not starting to form until c. 65 Ma. The solid lines with the uncertainty ellipses shows the trajectory based on the new Australia–Pacific rotations. ScienceDirect ® is a registered trademark of Elsevier B.V. ScienceDirect ® is a registered trademark of Elsevier B.V. Fifteen Years of (Major to Great) Tsunamigenic Earthquakes, Reference Module in Earth Systems and Environmental Sciences, The Indian Ocean Nodule Field (Second Edition). (2014). WESTERN PACIFIC DOMAIN [edit | edit source] The Philippine Archipelago is surrounded by a few major plate tectonics such as Eurasian Plate, Pacific Plate, Indo-Australian Plate, and a minor plate called Sunda Plate. The model of Hayes et al. 9.2. The Pacific Plate is an oceanic tectonic plate that lies beneath the Pacific Ocean. Fig. As it happens, the two plates didn't so much as collide, but (as it is called in the business) "soft-docked," where the Melanesian part of the Pacific plate sank under the Australian plate. Seismotectonics of a diffuse plate boundary: observations off the Sumatra-Andaman trench. However, if the more prominent nearby fracture zones are truly very weak structures, it is unclear why they were not preferentially activated. These huge underwater sediment avalanches sometimes generate tsunami that can rapidly reach the coast. The Australian plate subsequently began subducting beneath the Pacific plate from Late Miocene times (c. 7 Ma), which mirrors the situation in the Solomon Islands. The Indo-Australian Plate is a major tectonic plate that includes the continent of Australia and surrounding ocean, and extends northwest to include the Indian subcontinent and adjacent waters. Also the SEIR basalts are different from those occurring at the IOTJ, and their source may involve a variable proportion of a component tentatively assigned to recycled ancient sediments (Michard et al., 1986). The andesite line is an imaginary line that follows the subduction zones and trenches that separates composite volcanoes and shield volcanoes. Erosion of the up-faulted mountain ranges, enhanced by Quaternary glaciation, has deposited extensive gravels including the flood plains of modern rivers (Cox and Sutherland, 2007). The Hikurangi margin mega-thrust runs NE to SW off eastern North Island. Thus, slip can be large in the intraplate events, with estimates of localized slip greater than 25 m for the first faults to rupture in the MW 8.6 event in 2012 (e.g., Yue et al., 2012; Wei et al., 2013; Hill et al., 2015). Solid Earth 121, 3462–3478, Geology and Hydrogeology of Carbonate Islands, Tonga lies at the easternmost edge of the Indo-, Geo-Tectonics, Geology, and Geo-Resources of the Southwest Pacific, ): (1) the New Hebrides trench forms the western boundary to the islands, marking the site of present day subduction of the, Tropical Asia is an active plate collision zone between the northward-drifting, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_highest_mountains_of_New_Guinea, As a result of the stresses that accumulate from ongoing movement of the Pacific and, Howarth, Fitzsimons, Norris, Langridge, & Vandergoes, 2016. Major earthquakes are associated with the Alpine Fault (Fig. J. Geophys. Bird considers them to be unconnected. 2B). Answers. (2015) places the main slip patch (~ 11 m) away from the hypocenter. The Tonga Ridge comprises an active volcanic arc (the Tofua Arc) and a linear chain of uplifted platform carbonate rocks, atoll reefs, and older crystalline basement rocks (Hawkins et al., 1994). The model of Lay et al. Maximum submergence in the New Zealand region occurred in the Oligocene (Campbell et al., 2012; Fig. (2011). Fig. That intuitive ‘expectation’ should perhaps be downgraded. Gwhich r group would most likely be found in a hydrophobic area of the tertiary structure of a globular protein? The oceanic crust of the Pacific Plate was born at a spreading center in the eastern part of the ocean, beginning about 180 million years ago and still continuing today. As it spreads away from the ridge and cools and contracts, or becomes denser, it is able to sink into the hotter underlying mantle. The plate tectonic theory is a theory that geologists use to help explain the surface processes and events. Active fault zones in southern North Island and northeast South Island. The Earth’s lithosphere is made up eight major plates which include the Africa Plate, Antarctic Plate, Indo-Australian Plate, Australian Plate, Eurasian Plate, North American Plate, South American Plate, and the Pacific Plate. To the northeast of New Zealand, and underneath North Island, the Pacific Plate is moving towards, and … EAnt = East Antarctica, WAnt = West Antarctica, SAm = South America. This ridge is divided into two supersegments, one of which extends from 70°E (IOTJ) to 90°E, and is highly segmented, bordered by several transform faults, and influenced along part of its length by the Amsterdam/St. 9.2), where the response to the applied stress may be slow-slip displacement or ‘silent earthquakes’, that take place over weeks to months, or may be regular earthquakes that occurs in a matter of seconds. All of the North Island, the northern South Island, and a thin strip along the west coast of the South Island are on the Australian Plate, west of the boundary. Lindsay J. Furness, in Developments in Sedimentology, 2004. Through most of the South Island, the two plates grind past and into each other along the Alpine Fault . It is mainly occupied by the country of Australia, the Indian Ocean, and a part of the Pacific ocean. Paul and Kerguelen hotspots. Copyright © 2021 Elsevier B.V. or its licensors or contributors. The southern edge is a divergent plate boundary with the Antarctic Plate. High elevation areas in New Guinea. The Lau Basin was the focus of a recent leg of the Ocean Drilling Program (ODP), and as a result, the tectonic evolution of the Tonga area is well understood (Hawkins et al., 1994). Event location uncertainties in the remote areas are significant, but probably cannot place the major events in 2003 and 2016 on the prominent nearby fracture zones. (Gatliff, 1990). In New Zealand there was Oligocene emplacement of allochthons and Early Miocene commencement of subduction-related volcanism and uplift of mountain ranges. Active undersea volcanoes, comprising about 30 centres, continue along the Kermadec Arc for 1220 km to the northeast (Wright, 2015) and are the potential source of much more severe earthquakes and tsunami. But for much of the Phanerozoic Zealandia was located in the south polar regions of the Gondwana supercontinent (Campbell et al., 2012). The largest events to occur in the 20th century were the Buller earthquake of 1929 (MS = 7.8) and the Hawke's Bay earthquake of 1931 (MS = 7.8). The lowest solidus pressure and least extent of melting, supported by the bathymetric, gravity, and seismic evidence from beneath the AAD, suggest the presence of cooler temperature in the mantle (Klein et al., 1991). Some of the prominent fracture zones extend up to the Bay of Bengal. Tectonics means how the continents formed and move over time. It forms a subduction zone along the border with the Bird's Head Plate and the Woodlark Plate to the south. This theory was said to be proven by the discovery of fossilised remains of a mesosaurus that were found on the coasts of Brazil and Gabon. trimommalone4438. The lithospheric age in this region is 110 Ma, placing the source depth near the 600°C isotherm for half-space and plate-cooling models (Aderhold and Abercrombie, 2016). (A) Steady-state subduction during the late Miocene (7 Ma). Figure 1 Map, Assignment 2 The present day subduction zone accommodates the subduction of a sizeable positive topographic ridge, called the D’Entrecasteaux Ridge. Transform Plate Boundaries and Fracture Zones. Ticks show the downthrown side of normal fault zones, and arrows convey the sense of displacement along strike-slip fault zones. In New Zealand, the Australian and Pacific Plates push against each other along a curving boundary. All are considered to be Holocene in age and uplifted since sea level reached its present position about 7000 years ago, with the lowest two or three terraces having been dated (Fig. Model of formation and uplift of marine terraces and their cover deposits. (C) Continued extension and seamount volcanism during the middle Pliocene (2.5 Ma). Assignment 2 aims to look at the movement of the Earth 's plates as well as the development of Earthquakes and Volcanoes due to such movements. Rao et al. (2013a), featuring the rupture extending up to the seafloor, should, in principle, address and explain the differences between the other models being determined using both kinds of data. In the 38 million years since spreading ended, cooling has thickened the lithosphere progressively across the region, possibly with relatively small “memory” of the fracture zone genesis. Paul W. Williams, in New Zealand Landscape, 2017. The Australian plate later fused with the adjacent Indian Plate beneath the Indian Ocean t As mentioned before, it could be that there are very subtle fracture zone features that are not identified in the ridge offsets or bathymetry, or it may be that some form of fracture zone parallel fabric, perhaps associated with lateral thermal gradients, plays a role where these ruptures occur. The Amsterdamn-St. Paul Plateau along with t… The Pacific Plate contains all the plate tectonic boundary types along its boundary. F. Romano, ... T. Lay, in Reference Module in Earth Systems and Environmental Sciences, 2020. This group of plates is found North of New Zealand, enclosed by the Australian plate and the Pacific plate. Australia and Antarctica began rifting 85 million years ago and completely separated roughly 45 million years ago. Study of the plate tectonics of New Zealand has been undertaken since the early 1800s, however the most notable discovery regarding the plate tectonic setting was made in the 1940s by Harold Wellman, who discovered the Alpine Fault. In New Caledonia there was Eocene obduction of ophiolites and exhumation of high pressure gneissic rocks. 5. Answers: 1 Show answers Another question on Chemistry. Most Pleistocene shorelines are at or near present sea level, with tectonic activity restricted to the southeast of South Australia, where a 400-km-wide sequence of barrier regression has been preserved through the regional uplift (Short and Woodroffe, 2009). Res. As these two plates … This is a strong indication of lithosphere transecting ruptures in the largest strike-slip events. The cessation of long-lived subduction at c. 100 Ma was probably due to collision of the Hikurangi Plateau against the Gondwana margin. How they meet each other changes along the boundary. The Indo-Australian Plate and Antarctic Plate Boundary is an active divergent boundary known as the Southeast Indian Ridge. Table 2. 2). The Southeast Indian Ridge ranges approximately 2000 kilometers across the southern region of the Indian Ocean. It was formed by the fusion of Indian and Australian plates approximately 43 million years ago. Zealandia provides a geological record of the growth of Gondwana at these high latitudes, via accretion of the Western and Eastern Province terranes and via magmatic addition of the Tuhua Intrusives. The low-lying plains of southern New Guinea are geologically part of the Australian Plate. We use cookies to help provide and enhance our service and tailor content and ads. That crust is pushed towards Australia and Asia, riding on a partially molten mantle. The TVZ occurs because of New Zealand’s position on top of the plate boundary between the Pacific plate and the Indo-Australian plate. The Australian Plate has undergone major changes in plate boundary geometry and relative plate velocities since the breakup of Gondwanaland. Particularly large earthquakes occur during abrupt displacements along subduction zone mega-thrusts. However, alternative hypotheses involving subduction of a spreading ridge, or stalling of a spreading ridge offshore from the Zealandia margin cannot entirely be ruled out. The tsunami generated by this earthquake struck the coasts of Nendo Island with the maximum observed tsunami runup (> 11 m, Fritz et al., 2014) located northeast of large coseismic slip regions and hence probably related to the direct arrival of the main tsunami waves. 2). The Bay of Bengal event plots on the far right.

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